16 sources: 9 meta-analyses, 2 non-randomised trials, 4 randomised controlled trials, 1 systematic review
Physical · Practice
Brisk Walking Program
Thirty minutes of brisk walking most days: one way to carry out what the sources on cardiorespiratory fitness across exercise modes studied, in which a meta-analysis of 37 walking studies reports clinically substantial improvements in VO2max, blood pressure, body mass and fasting glucose (Oja 2018).
30 min · 5×/week
Beginner-friendlyOutdoor, treadmill, anywhere
Before you start
Increase pace/hills gradually if deconditioned
When to seek a professional
- Chest pain, pressure, or unusual shortness of breath during exertion
- Fainting, dizziness, or palpitations with exercise
- Known or suspected cardiovascular, metabolic, or renal disease without medical clearance
How to do it
30 min brisk walking, 5×/week (150 min/week)
The research behind this entry establishes something about dose, but not these exact parameters; treat them as a practical way to apply the finding rather than as the finding itself.
Supportive shoesNew to thisOlder adultsFor most adults
What the evidence says
What the sources say
This practice is one way to carry out what the sources on the concept entry (phys.cardio.modality-agnostic-fitness) studied: many forms of exercise, walking among them, with cardiorespiratory fitness as the outcome. Oja 2018 (meta-analysis with meta-regression, 37 studies, 2001 participants) reports clinically substantial improvements in body mass, BMI, body fat, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, fasting glucose and VO2max with walking, and that any exposure within the studied dose range is likely to be beneficial. Haynes 2019 (randomised trial) reports that both land-walking and water-walking improve cardiorespiratory fitness in previously sedentary older adults, in support of the recommendation that 150 min/week of moderate-intensity exercise produces improvements in fitness in previously sedentary older individuals. Azimkhani 2025 (meta-analysis, 51 studies, 3152 participants) reports that structured exercise interventions, regardless of type, are effective for improving cardiorespiratory fitness in older adults. The full account, source by source, is on the concept entry this practice links to (phys.cardio.modality-agnostic-fitness).
Common misconceptions
- 'Walking is too easy to count' (brisk walking meaningfully improves health)
What we won't claim
- No cure claims for any disease
- No guaranteed outcomes or fixed numeric results for any individual
- Does not replace prescribed medical treatment
16 sources: 9 meta-analyses, 2 non-randomised trials, 4 randomised controlled trials, 1 systematic review
- Agreement
- The review summary this entry was written from does not say whether its sources agree at this claim. Direction recorded for 14 of 16 sources; not yet recorded for the rest. A review summary is the written synthesis this entry was first built from; it is not one of the sources counted here.
- The claim's outcome
- Outcome not yet recorded
- Certainty
- A source states a certainty rating for 4 outcomes.
- Authors
- Sources share authors: Pekka Oja (first author of 2 sources).
What each source measured and concluded (16)
meta-analysis · 2022
Oliveira et al. (2022) — Effect of sport on health in people aged 60 years and older: a systematic review with meta-analysis
- What it measured
- Cardiorespiratory fitness, physical function, mental health, fat mass reduction.
- How it measured it
- Expired gas analysis (cardiorespiratory fitness), sit-stand test or SF-12 (physical function), Geriatric Depression Scale and SF-12 (mental health), DXA (fat mass reduction).
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
- What the review says it includes
- systematic review with meta-analysis
- Studies and participants, as stated
- N = 628 participants across 9 studies.
- Heterogeneity, as stated
- Heterogeneity in study populations (healthy and clinical conditions).
meta-analysis · 2025
Rodríguez et al. (2025) — Effect of exercise snacks on fitness and cardiometabolic health in physically inactive individuals: systematic review and meta-analysis
- What it measured
- CRF (maximal oxygen uptake, peak oxygen uptake, oxygen uptake), muscular strength and endurance (5-STS, 30/60-STS), blood lipid profiles (TC, HDL-C, LDL-C, triglycerides), body composition (BMI, body fat percentage).
- How it measured it
- Laboratory tests for CRF and blood lipids; validated tests for muscular strength and endurance; anthropometric measurements for body composition.
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
- What the review says it includes
- meta-analysis
- Studies and participants, as stated
- N = 414 participants across 11 studies
- Heterogeneity, as stated
- Inability to perform subgroup analyses due to small number of studies and heterogeneity.
- Heterogeneity, as stated
- Heterogeneity of exercise protocols.
meta-analysis · 2021
Faíl et al. (2021) — Benefits of aquatic exercise in adults with and without chronic disease—A systematic review with meta‐analysis
- What it measured
- Health-related parameters (lipid profile, blood pressure, quality of life, gait, fatigue, perception of pain) and physical fitness outcomes (strength, balance, cardiorespiratory fitness, anthropometrics, flexibility).
- How it measured it
- Meta-analysis using Review Manager software
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
- What the review says it includes
- systematic review with meta-analysis
- Studies and participants, as stated
- N = not reported participants across 62 studies
meta-analysis · 2025
Huang et al. (2025) — Effects of exercise on body fat percentage and cardiorespiratory fitness in sedentary adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis
- What it measured
- Body fat percentage (BF%), maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), and peak oxygen uptake (VO₂peak).
- How it measured it
- Standard methods for each measure, though specific tools are not detailed.
- How it was read
- read in full text
- What the review says it includes
- systematic review and meta-analysis
- Studies and participants, as stated
- N = 2,201 participants across 51 studies.
- Heterogeneity, as stated
- Methodological heterogeneity in measurement techniques and participant characteristics
non-randomised trial · 2024
Kim et al. (2024) — Cardiorespiratory Exertion While Exergaming in Healthy Adults
- What it measured
- Cardiopulmonary exertion (VO2max, VO2peak, VO2mean), heart rate (HRmax, HRpeak, HRmean), respiratory exchange ratio (RER)
- How it measured it
- Cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPX) on a treadmill (validated laboratory test), oxygen consumption measurement during Exerheart (validated method)
- How it was read
- read in full text
meta-analysis · 2018
Oja et al. (2018) — Effects of frequency, intensity, duration and volume of walking interventions on CVD risk factors: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomised controlled trials among inactive healthy adults
- What it measured
- Body mass, body mass index, body fat, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, fasting glucose, VO2max, waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides.
- How it measured it
- Standardized mean differences (SMD) between intervention and control groups.
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- Its conclusion, in its own words
- “Walking still remains firmly a 'best buy' for public health.”
- How it was read
- read in full text
- What the review says it includes
- systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression
- Studies and participants, as stated
- N = 2001 participants across 37 studies
- Heterogeneity, as stated
- Low heterogeneity limiting power to detect dose-response relationships
systematic review · 2025
Natalia et al. (2025) — Effect Dance On Cardiorespiratory Fitness Of Adults :Literature Review
- What it measured
- Cardiorespiratory fitness via VO2max.
- How it measured it
- VO2max is a validated measure of cardiorespiratory fitness.
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
- What the review says it includes
- systematic review
- Studies and participants, as stated
- N = not reported participants across 4 studies
randomised controlled trial · 2016
Dalager et al. (2016) — Implementing intelligent physical exercise training at the workplace: health effects among office workers—a randomized controlled trial
- What it measured
- Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) via VO2max.\n2. HOW was it measured: Åstrand one-point sub-maximal test on a bicycle (validated method).\n3. SECONDARY OUTCOMES: Body composition, blood pressure, blood lipid profile.\n4. COMPARED TO: Control group (CG) and baseline measurements.
- How it measured it
- Åstrand one-point sub-maximal test on a bicycle (validated method).\n3. SECONDARY OUTCOMES: Body composition, blood pressure, blood lipid profile.\n4. COMPARED TO: Control group (CG) and baseline measurements.
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
meta-analysis · 2015
Oja et al. (2015) — Health benefits of different sport disciplines for adults: systematic review of observational and intervention studies with meta-analysis
- What it measured
- VO2max, fat mass, resting heart rate
- How it measured it
- Standardized mean differences (SMD) between post-intervention values in randomized groups
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
- What the review says it includes
- systematic review with meta-analysis
- Studies and participants, as stated
- N = not reported participants across 69 studies
non-randomised trial · 2016
Peterman et al. (2016) — Pedelecs as a physically active transportation mode
- What it measured
- 2-h post-OGTT glucose, maximum oxygen consumption (VO2 max), and power output at the end of the GXT.
- How it measured it
- Laboratory tests: GXT for VO2 max and power output, OGTT for glucose levels, HOMA for insulin sensitivity.
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
randomised controlled trial · 2019
Haynes et al. (2019) — Land-walking vs. water-walking interventions in older adults: Effects on aerobic fitness
- What it measured
- Maximal oxygen uptake via maximal graded exercise test on a treadmill.
- How it measured it
- Laboratory test using a treadmill; validated method.
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
randomised controlled trial · 2023
Christiansen et al. (2023) — Long Term Cardiovascular Health Effects of Intelligent Physical Exercise Training Among Office Workers—A 2 Year Follow up of a Randomized Controlled Trial
- What it measured
- Cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2max)
- How it measured it
- Laboratory test (typically, but not explicitly mentioned)
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
meta-analysis · 2023
Pessôa et al. (2023) — Effects of Pilates exercises on cardiorespiratory fitness: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
- What it measured
- Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF)
- How it measured it
- Standardized mean difference (SMD) in meta-analysis
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
- What the review says it includes
- systematic review and meta-analysis
- Studies and participants, as stated
- N = 569 participants across 12 studies
meta-analysis · 2025
López-González et al. (2025) — Effect of exercise interventions on oxygen uptake in healthy older adults: A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
- What it measured
- Oxygen consumption via VO₂ peak.
- How it measured it
- Laboratory test (VO₂ peak test), which is a validated measure.
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
randomised controlled trial · 2024
Tekin et al. (2024) — Long-Term Effects of Three Different Exercise Training Modes on Cardiorespiratory Fitness of Female Flamenco Dancers.
- What it measured
- Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max)
- How it measured it
- Breath-by-breath gas analysis during an incremental treadmill test (validated laboratory test)
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
meta-analysis · 2025
Azimkhani et al. (2025) — The Effect of Aerobic, Resistance, and Combined Exercise Training on Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Healthy People Aged 60 years and Over: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
- What it measured
- Maximal/peak oxygen uptake (VO2max/peak) and the 6-min walk distance (6-MWD)
- How it measured it
- Laboratory test for VO2max/peak; 6-MWD measured by having participants walk as far as possible in six minutes
- Direction it states for the claim's outcome
- Improved
- How it was read
- read in full text
- What the review says it includes
- systematic review and meta-analysis
- Studies and participants, as stated
- N = 3152 participants across 51 studies
Certainty ratings the sources state (4)
Rodríguez et al. (2025), for its own outcome
- Rating, as the source states it
- Moderate
- Framework
- not named by the source
- Applies to
- AUTHOR CONCLUSION: "Moderate certainty of evidence indicated that exercise snacks improved cardiorespiratory fitness in physically inactive adults."
- Stated by
- Rodríguez et al. (2025)
- Rating, as the source states it
- Low
- Framework
- not named by the source
- Applies to
- Low certainty of evidence for most outcomes.
- Stated by
- Rodríguez et al. (2025)
Pessôa et al. (2023), for its own outcome
- Rating, as the source states it
- Low
- Framework
- not named by the source
- Applies to
- LIMITATIONS: Low quality of evidence;
- Stated by
- Pessôa et al. (2023)
- Rating, as the source states it
- low
- Framework
- not named by the source
- Applies to
- PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS: Pilates should be administered for at least 1440 minutes (equivalent to 2x-week for three months or 3x-week for two months) to have a significant effect on CRF; results should be interpreted with caution due to low quality evidence.
- Stated by
- Pessôa et al. (2023)
Key sources (17) · 1 not counted
Each source below is shown with its study design and a link to the original study, or, where it is not a completed research paper, with what kind of record it is; those are not counted. This is the audit trail.
meta-analysisEffect of sport on health in people aged 60 years and older: a systematic review with meta-analysis
meta-analysisEffect of exercise snacks on fitness and cardiometabolic health in physically inactive individuals: systematic review and meta-analysis
meta-analysisBenefits of aquatic exercise in adults with and without chronic disease—A systematic review with meta‐analysis
meta-analysisEffects of exercise on body fat percentage and cardiorespiratory fitness in sedentary adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis
non-randomised trialCardiorespiratory Exertion While Exergaming in Healthy Adults
Type not recordedInfographic. The effects of frequency, intensity, duration and volume of walking interventions on CVD risk factors: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomised controlled trials among inactive healthy adults
meta-analysisEffects of frequency, intensity, duration and volume of walking interventions on CVD risk factors: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomised controlled trials among inactive healthy adults
systematic reviewEffect Dance On Cardiorespiratory Fitness Of Adults :Literature Review
randomised controlled trialImplementing intelligent physical exercise training at the workplace: health effects among office workers—a randomized controlled trial
meta-analysisHealth benefits of different sport disciplines for adults: systematic review of observational and intervention studies with meta-analysis
non-randomised trialPedelecs as a physically active transportation mode
randomised controlled trialLand-walking vs. water-walking interventions in older adults: Effects on aerobic fitness
randomised controlled trialLong Term Cardiovascular Health Effects of Intelligent Physical Exercise Training Among Office Workers—A 2 Year Follow up of a Randomized Controlled Trial
meta-analysisEffects of Pilates exercises on cardiorespiratory fitness: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
meta-analysisEffect of exercise interventions on oxygen uptake in healthy older adults: A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
randomised controlled trialLong-Term Effects of Three Different Exercise Training Modes on Cardiorespiratory Fitness of Female Flamenco Dancers.
meta-analysisThe Effect of Aerobic, Resistance, and Combined Exercise Training on Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Healthy People Aged 60 years and Over: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
Why do some records show a record type instead of a study design?
A study design is shown for a completed, peer-reviewed paper. A registered protocol, a preprint, a conference abstract, a referee report or a book chapter has not been through peer review as a finished paper, so it is labelled for what it is, and it is counted in no source count. Where a record could not be confirmed as a completed paper at all, it says so rather than guessing. They all stay in the list, and their DOI still resolves, because the count of what was screened is part of the audit trail.
- Protocol / registration A registered plan for a review or trial, not its results.
- Preprint Posted by its authors before peer review.
- Conference abstract A conference summary rather than a peer-reviewed paper.
- Peer-review report A referee's report on a paper, not the paper itself.
- Guideline / position stand A recommendation derived from evidence, which is a step further from the data than the evidence itself.
- Book chapter A chapter in a scholarly book rather than a journal paper.
- Type not recorded Our record does not say what kind of publication this is, so it is counted in no source count. That is a gap in our data, not a judgement about the research.
Explore all 1,293 studies in Cardio & Endurance →
The full evidence base this focus area draws on, every study with its design and DOI.What it is for
Build cardio fitnessLower my long-term disease riskManage my weightProtect my heart